Using English For Predict Rendement Of Product A Reaction

       Chemistry students typically experience difficulty in predicting the products of chemical reactions. With practice, however, the process becomes progressively easier. The first step identifying the type of reaction involved is usually the most difficult. The primary reaction types students encounter are displacement, acid-base and combustion. They are easily identified if the tell-tale signs are known. Displacement reactions involve two ionic compounds with cations and anions, such as sodium sulfate, in which sodium (Na) is the cation and sulfate (SO2) is the anion. Ionic compounds always consist of a metal and a nonmetal or polyatomic (multiple-atom) anion. Decomposition reactions involve a single compound breaking into two or more compounds. Acid-base reactions must involve an acid (identified by its chemical formula that begins with “H,” such as HCl). Combustion reactions involve hydrogen or a hydrocarbon (such as CH) reacting with oxygen (O2).

      If we start with only one reactant, the reaction taking place is probably a decomposition reaction. To predict the products of such a reaction, see what happens if the chemical breaks into smaller, familiar products such as water, carbon dioxide, or any of the gaseous elements.

All chemical reactions can be classified into one of six categories:

1. Burning Reaction

2. Reaction Synthesis

3. Decomposition Reactions

4. Single Displacement Reaction

5. Acid-base Reaction

6. Double displacement reaction

Burning Reactions

The combustion reaction is when oxygen combines with other compounds to form water and carbon dioxide. These reactions are exothermic, which means they produce heat.For example naphthalene combustion reaction.

C10H8 + 12 O2 -> 10 CO2 + 4 H2O

Reaction Synthesis

The synthesis reaction is when two or more simple compounds combine to form one more complex compound. These reactions appear in a general form:

A + B -> AB

One example of a synthesis reaction is a combination of iron and sulfur to form iron (II) sulfide:

8 Fe + S8 -> 8 FeS

Decomposition Reactions

The decomposition reaction is the opposite of the synthesis reaction - the complex molecule is broken down to make a simpler molecule.These reactions appear in a general form:

AB -> A + B

One example of a decomposition reaction is electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:

2 H2O -> 2 H2 + O2

Single Displacement Reaction

This reaction is when one element alternates with another in a compound. These reactions appear in a general form:

A + BC -> AC + B

One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas:

Ca+2H2O->Ca(OH)2+H2

Double displacement reaction

This is when the anions and cations of two different molecules switch places, forming two completely different compounds. These reactions appear in a general form:

AB+CD->AD + CB

One example of a dual displacement reaction is the reaction of lead (II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead (II) iodide and potassium nitrate:

Pb(NO3)2+2KI->PbI2+2 KNO3

Acid-base Reactions

This is a special kind of double displacement reaction that occurs when acids and bases react with each other. H + ions in acid react with OH⁻ ions in the base, causing water formation. Generally, the product of this reaction is ionic and water salts:

HA+BOH->H2O + BA

An example of an acid-base reaction is the reaction of bromide acid (HBr) with sodium hydroxide:

HBr + NaOH -> NaBr + H2O

Using English For Report

Title:Determination of the molar mass based on the freezing point drop
Day/Date:Friday,17th march 2017
Purpose: 1) To be able set the point of freezing pure liquid and freezing point of solution in the solvent
          2) To be able to determine molar mass and unknown compounds based        on the decrease of freezing point
Theoretical basis:
The colligative nature of the solution is the nature of the solution which does not depend on the kind of solute but solely determined by the amount of solute (Syukri,2010:210).
When a solvent is added with a small amount of solute,there will be a solution which decreases the saturated vapor pressure,increase in the the boiling point, decrease the freezing point, osmosis pressure, and others(Elis,2011:201).
The addition of non-volatile solutes into pure liquid causes a drop in the vapor pressure of the liquid. This results in  a decrease in the freezing point of the solution and an increase in the the boiling point of the solution when compared to the pure liquid. How much change occurs depends only on the amount of the dissolved substance and on the dissociation level of the solute. Changes in freezing and boiling points are not related to the chemical identity of the substance in question. Decrease in vapor pressure,boiling point rise, and decrease of freezing point are known as colligative properties(Handayana,2010:298).
There are five koligative properties of the solution:
1. Decrease in saturated vapor pressure,from Roult’s law
The solvent vapor pressure is not zero and changes according to the composition of the solution at a certain temperature. Roult’s law states that the vapor pressure of the solvent above a solution (PA) is equal to the product of vapor pressure because x1 =1-x2. For a solution consisting of two components,Roult’s law is written as:
ΔP1 = P1-P10=x1P01-P10=-x2P¬¬10
So,the change in solvent vapor pressure id directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solute(Oxtoby,2010:309).
2. Osmosis Pressure
The number of particles in the solution is determined by the concentration of the solution and the nature of the solution itself. The number of particles in the non-electrolyte solution is not equal to the number of particles in the electrolyte solution even though the concentrations are the same(Oxtoby,2010:309).
3. Increase of boiling point
The normal boiling point of pure liquid or solution is the temperature at which the vapor pressure reaches 1 atm. Since the solute decreases the vapor pressure, the temperature of the solution should be increased to boil(Oxtoby,2010:310).
4. Decrease of freezing point
If the solvent water and air pressure 1 atm, then the freezing point of the solution is expressed as:
Tf =(0-ΔTf)0C
(Oxtoby,2010:311)
5. Osmotic pressure
This pressure is a pressure applied to a solution which can stop the transfer of solvent molecules into the solution through a semipermeable membrane (osmosis process)(Oxtoby,2010:312).
The concentration of the substance is the number of moles pervolume. Molality is the mass ration and t is independent of temperature. Molality and molarity are almost equal (Bird,2010:257).

Tools and materials:
Tools to be used:
1000 ml beaker
50 ml beaker
Large reaction tube
Thermometer
Spray bottle
Stir bar
Stopwatch
Analytical balance
Materials to be used:
Benzenal (C6H6)
P-xylene
Ice cube
Aquades
Salt

Work steps:

Results:

A. Fozen solvent determination of pure solvent

1. The finally buret reading : -

2. The firstly buret reading : -

3. The volume of p-xylene used : 25 mL

Discussion:

In this experiment,we conducted two types of that,there are:

A.  Frozen solvent determination of pure solvent

In this experiment, we used a p-xylene solvent because this solution was a benzene used as a solvent. The use of salt in this experiment is for as a stabilizer of ice temperature because the salt can inhibit the process of melting ice. Salt used should not be too much because it will affect the process of decrease in freezing and the results will be less accurate. However,if the salt used is too small then the frost drop does not reach an accurte temperature. We use a thermometer to measure the temperature of the solvent when the solvent is frozen but keep the thermometer from touching the bottom of the test tube as it will affect the stability of the freezing point temperature of the tested solution.

From the graph,it can be seen that there is a decrease in temperature every 15 seconds. Although our experiments failed because this solution did not freeze but there was a decrease of temperature from 100 C until -40 C. This indicates that there is an effect if ice used to decrease this freezing point even though it does not freeze. When we see the decrease of temperature in every 15 seconds,it can be seen that the longer time the slower it goes down or change.

B.  Determination of molar masses of unknown compound

For this experiment,we did not do it because this experiment can only be done if the previous experiment successed. But the previous experiment was unsuccessful so we could not determine the molar mass of a compound we didi not know yet. According to the literature,if we have obtained the determination of freezing point of pure solvent,then we can look for the molar mass of unknown compound by the formula:

ΔTf = Tf (pelarut) – Tf (larutan)

Then

ΔTf = Kf . m

This calculation can be done by drawing a line that is at the initial and final temperature when the temperature obtained to the point where the solution or solvent p-xylene freeze.

Conclusion:

For these experiment, we can concluded that:

1.The freezing point of pure liquid and freezing point of solution in the corresponding solvent can be determined by recording the temperature each time continuously, resulting in a constant expressed by:

ΔTf = Kf x m

that : ΔTf = Decrease in freezing point

         Kf = Molar freeze point constant

         M = Molality

2. Determining the molar mass of an unknown compound based on the decrease of freezing point through experiment is by inserting a compound in other compound or other solution. And measured the temperature of any given period of time. These can expressed by:

ΔTf = Kf x m ;n = M x V

Obtained molar: M

Literature:

Syukri,s.2010. Kimia Dasar 2.Bandung:ITB

Handayana,Pudjaamaka.2010.Kimia Fisika Universitas Edisi Ke-6 Jilid 1. Jakarta:Erlangga

Elis.2011.Diktat Kuliah:Kimia Dasar I(Kimia Anorganik).Bandung:ITB

Oxtoby,dkk.2010.Prinsip-prinsip Kimia Modern edisi ke-4 Jilid 1.Jakarta:Erlangga

Bird,Tony.2010.Kimia Fisika Untuk Universitas.Jakarta:PT Gramedia

stoichiometry

        Using a balanced chemical equation to calculate amounts of reactants and products is called stoichiometry. It is a super technical-sounding word that simply means using ratios from the balanced equation. In this article, we will discuss how to use mole ratios to calculate the amount of reactants needed for a reaction.

  The Mole      
       Given the equation above, we can tell the number of moles of reactants and products. A mole simply represents Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10²³) of molecules. A mole is similar to a term like a dozen. If you have a dozen carrots, you have twelve of them. Similarly, if you have a mole of carrots, you have 6.022 x 10²³ carrots. In the equation above there are no numbers in front of the terms, so each coefficient is assumed to be one (1). Thus, you have the same number of moles of AgNO₃, NaCl, AgCl, NaNO₃.
        Converting between moles and grams of a substance is often important. This conversion can be easily done when the atomic and/or molecular mass of the substance(s) are known. Given the atomic or molecular mass of a substance, that mass in grams makes a mole of the substance. For example, calcium has an atomic mass of 40 atomic mass units. So, 40 grams of calcium makes one mole, 80 grams makes two moles, etc.
      Describing the quantitative relationships among substances as they participate in chemical reactions is known asreaction stoichiometry. In the example above, reaction stoichiometry measures the relationship between the methane and oxygen as they react to form carbon dioxide and water.
Atomic Mass
1. relative atomic mass (Ar)
Measuring the mass is comparing the mass of an object to another, in which the mass of the reference object is called the standard mass.
2. Relative Molecular Mass and Mass Relative Formula (Mr)
The mass of a molecule of a compound is called the relative molecular mass (Mr). The magnitude of the relative molecular mass of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic mass (Ar) of its constituent elements.
Mr AxBy = (x  Ar A + y Ar B)
3. Average atomic mass
Atoms of the same element do not always have the same mass. This is known as isotopes. The atoms in nature can have different masses, then the atomic mass is calculated on the average mass of all the atoms in nature.
Molar proportion
Stoichiometry is often used to balance chemical equations (reaction stoichiometry). For example, the two diatomic gases, hydrogen and oxygen, can combine to form a liquid, water, in an exothermic reaction, as described by the following equation:

2 H
2 + O
2 → 2 H
2O

Reaction stoichiometry describes the 2:1:2 ratio of hydrogen, oxygen, and water molecules in the above equation.
The molar ratio allows for conversion between moles of one substance and moles of another. For example, in the reaction

2 CH
3OH + 3 O
2 → 2 CO
2 + 4 H
2O

the amount of water that will be produced by the combustion of 0.27 moles of CH
3OH is obtained using the molar ratio between CH
3OH and H
2O of 2 to 4.

${\displaystyle \left({\frac {0.27{\mbox{ mol }}\mathrm {CH_{3}OH} }{1}}\right)\left({\frac {4{\mbox{ mol }}\mathrm {H_{2}O} }{2{\mbox{ mol }}\mathrm {CH_{3}OH} }}\right)=0.54\ {\text{mol }}\mathrm {H_{2}O} }$

The term stoichiometry is also often used for the molar proportions of elements in stoichiometric compounds (composition stoichiometry). For example, the stoichiometry of hydrogen and oxygen in H₂O is 2:1. In stoichiometric compounds, the molar proportions are whole numbers.

Give evidence: The soap

         In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps includewashing, bathing, and other types ofhousekeeping, where soaps act assurfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be carried away by water. In industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier.
         Soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide orpotassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids attach to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye (although the term "lye soap" refers almost exclusively to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), induces saponification.
         In this reaction, the triglyceride fats firsthydrolyze into free fatty acids, and then the latter combine with the alkali to form crude soap: an amalgam of various soap salts, excess fat or alkali, water, and liberatedglycerol (glycerin). The glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses.
         Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soapand mineral oil. Many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil.
      Action of soap
        When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, so they can then be rinsed away. For example: oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat dissolves in the water. The insoluble oil/fat molecules become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water.
Effect of the alkali
          The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived frompotassium hydroxide, are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases.
Effects of fats
           Soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have been made fromtriglycerides (oils and fats). Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of fatty acids and glycerin. Tallow,rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, and laurel oil. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oilis sometimes called Castile soap orMarseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.
Soap making processes
The industrial production of soap involves continuous processes, such as continuous addition of fat and removal of product. Smaller-scale production involves the traditional batch processes. The three variations are: the 'cold process', wherein the reaction takes place substantially at room temperature, the 'semi-boiled' or 'hot process', wherein the reaction takes place near the boiling point, and the 'fully boiled process', wherein the reactants are boiled at least once and the glycerol is recovered. There are several types of 'semi-boiled' hot process methods, the most common being DBHP (Double Boiler Hot Process) and CPHP (Crock Pot Hot Process). Most soapmakers, however, continue to prefer the cold process method. The cold process and hot process (semi-boiled) are the simplest and typically used by small artisans and hobbyists producing handmade decorative soaps. The glycerol remains in the soap and the reaction continues for many days after the soap is poured intomolds. The glycerol is left during the hot-process method, but at the high temperature employed, the reaction is practically completed in the kettle, before the soap is poured into molds. This simple and quick process is employed in small factories all over the world.
Handmade soap from the cold process also differs from industrially made soap in that an excess of fat is used, beyond that needed to consume the alkali (in a cold-pour process, this excess fat is called "superfatting"), and the glycerol left in acts as a moisturizing agent. However, the glycerine also makes the soap softer and less resistant to becoming "mushy" if left wet. Since it is better to add too much oil and have left-over fat, than to add too much lye and have left-over lye, soap produced from the hot process also contains left-over glycerol and its concomitant pros and cons. Further addition of glycerol and processing of this soap produces glycerin soap. Superfatted soap is more skin-friendly than one without extra fat. However, if too much fat is added, it can leave a "greasy" feel to the skin.                            Sometimes, an emollient additive, such asjojoba oil or shea butter, is added "at trace" ( the point at which the saponificationprocess is sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to thicken in the cold process method) in the belief that nearly all the lye will be spent and it will escape saponification and remain intact. In the case of hot-process soap, an emollient may be added after the initial oils have saponified so they remain unreacted in the finished soap. Superfatting can also be accomplished through a process known as "lye discount" in which the soap maker uses less alkali than required instead of adding extra fats.

The article of chemistry:Radioactive isotope

        Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, orradioactive nuclide, any of several species of the same chemical elementwith different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma rays.
        A brief treatment of radioactive isotopes follows. For full treatment, see isotope: Radioactive isotopes. Every chemical element has one or more radioactive isotopes. For example,hydrogen, the lightest element, has three isotopes with mass numbers 1, 2, and 3. Only hydrogen-3 (tritium), however, is a radioactive isotope, the other two being stable. More than 1,000 radioactive isotopes of the various elements are known. Approximately 50 of these are found in nature; the rest are produced artificially as the direct products ofnuclear reactions or indirectly as the radioactive descendants of these products.
         Radioactive isotopes have many useful applications. In medicine, for example,cobalt-60 is extensively employed as aradiation source to arrest the development of cancer. Other radioactive isotopes are used as tracers for diagnostic purposes as well as in research on metabolic processes. When a radioactive isotope is added in small amounts to comparatively large quantities of the stable element, it behaves exactly the same as the ordinary isotope chemically; it can, however, be traced with a Geiger counter or other detection device. Iodine-131 has proved effective in treatinghyperthyroidism. Another medically important radioactive isotope is carbon-14, which is used in a breath test to detect the ulcer-causing bacteriaHeliobacter pylori.
         In industry, radioactive isotopes of various kinds are used for measuring the thickness of metal or plastic sheets; their precise thickness is indicated by the strength of the radiations that penetrate the material being inspected. They also may be employed in place of large X-raymachines to examine manufactured metal parts for structural defects. Other significant applications include the use of radioactive isotopes as compact sources of electrical power—e.g., plutonium-238 inspacecraft. In such cases, the heatproduced in the decay of the radioactive isotope is converted into electricity by means of thermoelectric junction circuits or related devices.
The table lists some naturally occurring radioactive isotopes.

Cause and effect from metal rust

       All metals other than precious metals rust when exposed to an electrolyte (i.e. atmosphericmoisture) and oxygen. Rusting is caused by the chemical reaction of the metal surface and theoxygen present in the air and form the respective metal oxide on the surface.  In steel, thecorrosion products formed are quite visible and are loose.  You must have seen the red color ofiron oxide on unprotected steel products. This red rust is scaly and loose and easily falls away thusexposing more portion of the metal to rust. Metals like stainless steel also rusts however, thenickel and chromium oxides formed are a more uniform and tenacious oxide layer that save themetal by sealing the surface from further rusting.When a metal is kept indoors, moisture above about 65% relative humidity is required to rust iron. However, the contamination of salt, dust or other pollutants may cause rusting at lower humiditylevel.  At higher humidity level contamination of pollutants will accelerate further rusting ofunderlying metal. The presence of salt or oil on the surface of metals creates the kind of rustingenvironment that causes metals to reacts. Exposure of metals to cooking materials enhances the rusting rate.

The original look and shine of the metal is lost.

Effects of rusting on Metal
       Metals have the tendency to return to their natural state and this is the primary cause of therusting. One a metal has rusted, it loses its strength. To prevent from a metal from rusting variousmethods are implemented such as painting, bluing, galvanization, and other forms of protection.Rust causes millions of dollars of damage every year and billions of dollars are spent to repair thedamage, or to inhibit it thus adding extra expenditures for the maintenance of the metal.Rusting can be easily prevented.  All the metals are not prone to rust. Using preventive measureslike painting, bluing and galvanization can prevent metals from rusting.

Chemistry vocabulary

1.The reaction rate : indicates the number of chemical reactions that take place per unit of time. The reaction rate represents the molarity of the solute in the reaction produced every second of the reaction.
2. Avogadro  Numbers  :  avogadro resolution are 6,023  x  1023  particles
3. Chemical Substance  : a material with a definite chemical composition
4. Homogeneous Mixture : is a type of mixture in which the composition is uniform and every part of the solution has the same properties.
5. Heterogeneous  Mixture  :  is a type of mixture in which the components can be seen, as there are two or more phases present.
6. Chemical  Change  : occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, called chemical synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition into two or more different substances.
7. Chemical  Property  :   is any of a material's properties that becomes evident during, or after, a chemical reaction; that is, any quality that can be established only by changing a substance's chemical identity.
8. Atom  : look like and how they behave were incorrect.
9. Electrons  :   is a subatomic particle, symbol
e− or
β−, with a negative elementary electric charge
10. Protons  :    is a subatomic particle, symbol
p
or
p+, with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of a neutron.
11. Atomic Nucleus    :  the very dense central region of an atom
12. Mass: Is  the  amount  of  matter  in  a  substance.  It  is  commonly  reported  in  units  of grams.
13. Mass  Number : This  number is  the  sum  of  the  number  of  protons  and  neutrons.
14. Isotopes  :  are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number.
15. Chemical  Bond  :  is a lasting attraction between atoms that enables the formation of chemical compounds.
16. Chemical  Formula  :  is a way of expressing information about the proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound,
17. Groups  :  The  vertical  columns  in  the  periodic  table.
18. Ionic  Bond  :  is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.
19. Semiconductors  :  has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass.
20. Covalent  Bond  :   is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
21. Molecule  :  A  neutral  molecule  that  forms  as  a  result  of  electron  sharing.
22. Metals  : Good  conductors  of  heat  and  electricity.
23. Metalloids  :  Has  properties  of  both  nonmetals  and  metals.
24. Boiling  Point  :The  point  in  temperature  when  the  liquid  starts  to  boil.
25. Heat  of  Fusion                :  The  energy  required  to  change  a  substance  from  a  solid  to  a liquid  at  its  melting  point.
26. Acid: There  are  several  ways  to  define  an  acid,  but  they  include  any  chemical  that  gives off  protons  or  H+  in  water.  Acids  have  a  pH  less  than  7.  They  turn  the  pH  indicator phenophthalein  colorless  and  turn  litmus  paper  red.
27. Alkane: An  alkane  is  an  organic  molecule  that  only  contains  single  carbon-carbon bonds.
28. Alkene: An  alkene  is  an  organic  molecule  that  contains  at  least  one  C=C  or  carboncarbon  double  bond.
29. Base: A  base  is  a  compound  that  produces  OH-  ions  or  electrons  in  water  or  that accepts  protons.
30. Buffer: A  liquid  that  resists  change  in  pH  when  an  acid  or  base  is  added.  A  buffer consists  of  a  weak  acid  and  its  conjugate  base.
31. Crystal: A  crystal  is  an  ordered,  repeating  three-dimensional  pattern  of  ions,  atoms,  or molecules.  Most  crystals  are  ionic  solids,  although  other  forms  of  crystals  exist.
32. Cathode: A  cathode  is  the  electrode  which  gains  electrons  or  is  reduced.  In  other words,  it  is  where  reduction  occurs  in  an  electrochemical  cell.
33. Diffusion: Is  the  movement  of  particles  from  an  area  of  higher  concentration to  one  of  lower  concentration.
34. Viscosity  :  The  resistance  to  flow  by  a  fluid.
35. Decomposition  Reaction  :  One  substance  breaks  down,  into  2  more.
36. Law  of  Conservation  and  Mass  :  The  mass  of  all  substances  that  are  present before  a  chemical  change  equals  the  mass  of  all  the  substances  after  the  change.
37. Titration: Is  a  procedure  in  which  the  concentration  of  an  acid  or  base  is determined  by  measuring  how  much  base  or  acid  is  required  to  neutralize  it.
38. Beta  particle: Is  an  electron,  although  the  term  is  used  when  the  electron is  emitted  in  radioactive  decay.
39. Bond  length: Is  the  average  distance  between  the  nuclei  of  two  atoms  that share  a  bond.
40. Carboxylic  acid: Is  an  organic  molecule  containing  a  -COOH  group. An  example  of  a  carboxylic  acid  is  acetic  acid.